AP Environmental Science Comprehensive Study Guide Made By Sai Surej NOT A SUBSTITUTE FOR READING THE TEXTBOOK (Some Info May Be Repetitive) STUDENTS 2 Table of Contents  APES EXAM TOPIC OUTLINE ********************************************************** 5  STANDARD GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE*************************************************** 7  QUICK APES NOTES  Earth Science ***********************************************************************9  Atmosphere *********************************************************************** 10  Water **************************************************************************** 10  Soil ******************************************************************************11  Ecosystems / Biomes ****************************************************************12  Energy Flow ***********************************************************************13  Ecosystem diversity *****************************************************************13  Populations ************************************************************************14  Agriculture ************************************************************************15  Forestry ************************************************************************** 15  Rangelands ************************************************************************15  Other Land Use ******************************************************************** 15  Mining ***************************************************************************16  Fishing ***************************************************************************16  Global Economics ****************************************************************** 16  Types of Pollution ****************************************************************** 17  Energy Concepts ******************************************************************* 18  Global Change *********************************************************************20  LONGER APES NOTES  Agriculture and Food ****************************************************************21  Air ******************************************************************************26  Air Pollution ********************************************************************** 30  Biodiversity ***********************************************************************34  Biological Communities ************************************************************* 37  Biomes ***************************************************************************41  Conventional Energy ****************************************************************49  Economics ************************************************************************ 53  Environmental Geology **************************************************************56  Environmental Health and Toxicology ************************************************** 60  Environmental Philosophies ********************************************************** 63  Human Population ******************************************************************67  Laws *****************************************************************************69  Matter ****************************************************************************83  Pests *****************************************************************************86  Population ************************************************************************ 89  Solid, Toxic, and Hazardous Waste *****************************************************91 2 3  Sustainable Cities and Personal Action **************************************************94  Sustainable Energy ******************************************************************99  Water *************************************************************************** 104  Water Pollution ******************************************************************* 107  HOW IT HAPPENS ******************************************************************112  TOPIC SUMMARIES  Science, Systems, Matter, and Energy **************************************************115  Ecosystems: What Are They and How Do They Work *************************************116  Evolution and Biodiversity ********************************************************** 117  Biodiversity, Species Interactions, and Population Control ********************************* 118  The Human Population and Its Impact ************************************************* 119  Climate and Terrestrial Biodiversity *************************************************** 120  Aquatic Biodiversity *************************************************************** 121  Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach ****************************************** 122  Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach *******************************123  Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity ****************************************************** 125  Food, Soil, and Pest Management *****************************************************126  Water ***************************************************************************128  Geology and Nonrenewable Mineral Resources ******************************************129  Nonrenewable Energy **************************************************************130  Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy ********************************************** 131  Environmental Hazards and Human Health ********************************************* 132  Air Pollution ********************************************************************* 133  Climate Change and Ozone Depletion **************************************************134  Water Pollution ******************************************************************* 135  Solid and Hazardous Waste **********************************************************136  Sustainable Cities ******************************************************************137  Economics, Environment, and Sustainability ******************************************** 138  Politics, Environment, and Sustainability *********************************************** 139  Environmental Worldviews, Ethics, and Sustainability*************************************140  IN-DEPTH TOPIC NOTES  Living Sustainably *****************************************************************141  Critical Thinking ******************************************************************151  Matter and Energy *****************************************************************156  Ecosystems ***********************************************************************163  Nutrient Cycles and Soil ************************************************************ 168  Evolution and Biodiversity ********************************************************** 175  Climate and Biomes ****************************************************************184  Aquatic Ecology *******************************************************************191  Species Interactions ****************************************************************203  Population Dynamics ***************************************************************212  Human Population *****************************************************************220  Food Resources *******************************************************************230  Water****************************************************************************236  Minerals and Soil Resources *********************************************************243  Nonrenewable Energy **************************************************************258 3 4  Renewable Energy *****************************************************************272  Toxicology ***********************************************************************280  Air Pollution ********************************************************************* 290  Global Warming ****************************************************************** 301  Water Pollution ******************************************************************* 317  Pesticides ************************************************************************ 328  Solid and Hazardous Waste **********************************************************334  Sustaining Ecosystems - Land Use **************************************************** 346  Sustaining Ecosystems - Forests ******************************************************356  Sustaining Wild Species ************************************************************ 367  Sustainable Cities - Urban Land Management ******************************************* 378  Economics and Environment *********************************************************390  Politics and Environment ************************************************************402  Environmental Worldviews **********************************************************413  AIR POLLUTANTS*******************************************************************419  OTHER IMPORTANT INFO  Endangered Species ****************************************************************420  Not Endangered Species ************************************************************ 420  Biomes ************************************************************************* 421  Places to Know ******************************************************************* 422  Laws and Treaties ***************************************************************** 422  People to Know ******************************************************************* 423  Top 10's ************************************************************************* 424  Math Review ********************************************************************* 427  Chemistry Review ***************************************************************** 429  REVIEW PPT *********************************************************************** 431  MATH WITHOUT CALCULATORS **************************************************** 544  GLOSSARY 1 ***********************************************************************566  GLOSSARY 2 ***********************************************************************586  GLOSSARY 3 ***********************************************************************590  EXTERNAL LINKS (Extremely Useful) **************************************************595  VISUALS ************************************************************************** 601  FINAL THOUGHTS ******************************************************************602  EXAM TIPS ************************************************************************ 603 4 5 APES EXAM TOPIC OUTLINE I. Earth Systems and Resources (10-15%) A. Earth Science Concepts (Geologic time scale; plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism; seasons; solar intensity and latitude) B. The Atmosphere (Composition; structure; weather and climate; atmospheric circulation and the Coriolis Effect; atmosphere-ocean interactions; ENSO) C. Global Water Resources and Use (Freshwater/saltwater; ocean circulation; agricultural, industrial, and domestic use; surface and groundwater issues; global problems; conservation) D. Soil and Soil Dynamics (Rock cycle; formation; composition; physical and chemical properties; main soil types; erosion and other soil problems; soil conservation) II. The Living World (10-15%) A. Ecosystem Structure (Biological populations and communities; ecological niches; interactions among species; keystone species; species diversity and edge effects; major terrestrial and aquatic biomes) B. Energy Flow (Photosynthesis and cellular respiration; food webs and trophic levels; ecological pyramids) C. Ecosystem Diversity (Biodiversity; natural selection; evolution; ecosystem services) D. Natural Ecosystem Change (Climate shifts; species movement; ecological succession) E. Natural Biogeochemical Cycles (Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, water, conservation of matter) III. Population (10-15%) A. Population Biology Concepts (Population ecology; carrying capacity; reproductive strategies; survivorship) B. Human Population 1. Human population dynamics (Historical population sizes; distribution; fertility rates; growth rates and doubling times; demographic transition; age-structure diagrams) 2. Population size (Strategies for sustainability; case studies; national policies) 3. Impacts of population growth (Hunger; disease; economic effects; resource use; habitat destruction) IV. Land and Water Use (10-15%) A. Agriculture 1. Feeding a growing population (Human nutritional requirements; types of agriculture; Green Revolution; genetic engineering and crop production; deforestation; irrigation; sustainable agriculture) 2. Controlling pests (Types of pesticides; costs and benefits of pesticide use; integrated pest management; relevant laws) B. Forestry (Tree plantations; old growth forests; forest fires; forest management; national forests) C. Rangelands (Overgrazing; deforestation; desertification; rangeland management; federal rangelands) D. Other Land Use 1. Urban land development (Planned development; suburban sprawl; urbanization) 2. Transportation infrastructure (Federal highway system; canals and channels; roadless areas; ecosystem impacts) 3. Public and federal lands (Management; wilderness areas; national parks; wildlife refuges; forests; wetlands) 4. Land conservation options (Preservation; remediation; mitigation; restoration) 5 6 5.Sustainable land-use strategies E. Mining (Mineral formation; extraction; global reserves; relevant laws and treaties) F. Fishing (Fishing techniques; overfishing; aquaculture; relevant laws and treaties) G. Global Economics (Globalization; World Bank; Tragedy of the Commons; relevant laws and treaties) V. Energy Resources and Consumption (10-15%) A. Energy Concepts (Energy forms; power; units; conversions; Laws of Thermodynamics) B. Energy Consumption 1.History (Industrial Revolution; exponential growth; energy crisis) 2.Present global energy use 3.Future energy needs C. Fossil Fuel Resources and Use (Formation of coal, oil, and natural gas; extraction/purification methods; world reserves and global demand; synfuels; environmental advantages/disadvantages of sources) D. Nuclear Energy (Nuclear fission process; nuclear fuel; electricity production; nuclear reactor types; environmental advantages/disadvantages; safety issues; radiation and human health; radioactive wastes; nuclear fusion) E. Hydroelectric Power (Dams; flood control; salmon; silting; other impacts) F. Energy Conservation (Energy efficiency; CAFE standards; hybrid electric vehicles; mass transit) G. Renewable Energy (Solar energy; solar electricity; hydrogen fuel cells; biomass; wind energy; small-scale hydroelectric; ocean waves and tidal energy; geothermal; environmental advantages/disadvantages) VI.Pollution (25-30%) A. Pollution Types 1.Air pollution (Sources-primary and secondary; major air pollutants; measurement units; smog; acid deposition-causes and effects; heat islands and temperature inversions; indoor air pollution; remediation and reduction strategies; Clean Air Act and other relevant laws) 2.Noise pollution (Sources; effects; control measures) 3.Water pollution (Types; sources, causes, and effects; cultural eutrophication; groundwater pollution; maintaining water quality; water purification; sewage treatment/septic systems; Clean Water Act and other relevant laws) 4.Solid waste (Types; disposal; reduction) B. Impacts on the Environment and Human Health 1.Hazards to human health (Environmental risk analysis; acute and chronic effects; dose response relationships; air pollutants; smoking and other risks) 2.Hazardous chemicals in the environment (Types of hazardous waste; treatment/disposal of hazardous waste; cleanup of contaminated sites; biomagnification; relevant laws) C. Economic Impacts (Cost-benefit analysis; externalities; marginal costs; sustainability) VII.Global Change (10-15%) A. Stratospheric Ozone (Formation of stratospheric ozone; ultraviolet radiation; causes of ozone depletion; effects of ozone depletion; strategies for reducing ozone depletion; relevant laws and treaties) B. Global Warming (Greenhouse gases and the greenhouse effect; impacts and consequences of global warming; reducing climate change; relevant laws and treaties) C. Loss of Biodiversity 1.Habitat loss; overuse; pollution; introduced species; endangered and extinct species 2.Maintenance through conservation 3.Relevant laws and treaties 6 7 STANDARD GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE AGE IMPORTANT EON ERA PERIOD EPOCH (M.y.) EVENTS 0.01 - Human civilization Holocene present develops. Quaternary Continental 1.6 - glaciation in the Pleistocene 0.01 northern hemisphere 5.3 - Humans appear for Pliocene 1.6 the first time. 23.7 - Antarctic Ice Sheet CENOZOIC Miocene 5.3 develops. Himalaya 36.6 - Oligocene Mountains begin to Tertiary 23.7 form. 57.8 - The Alps form in Eocene 36.6 Europe. Mammals become 66.4 - PHANEROZOIC Paleocene dominant land 57.8 animals Dinosaurs become 144 - extinct; Rocky Cretaceous 66.4 Mountains begin forming. Atlantic Ocean 208 - begins to form MESOZOIC Jurassic 144 between N. America & Africa. 1st dinosaurs; North 245 - America begins to Triassic 208 separate from Africa. All land masses 286 - joined to form a PALEOZOIC Permian 245 single supercontinent 7 8 called Pangaea. Appalachian Mountains & 320 - Ouachita Mountains Pennsylvanian 286 formed by continental collision with Africa. Extensive deposits 360 - Mississippian of coal developed 320 worldwide. 1st fossils of 408- amphibians Devonian 360 (animals which could live on land). 438 - 1st fossils of land Silurian 408 plants. 1st fossil fish; 505 - evidence of Ordovician 438 continental glaciation in Africa. 545 - Abundant fossils of Cambrian 505 marine organisms. 1st evidence of 2500 - oxygen in PROTEROZOIC 545 atmosphere = 2.0 billion years ago. Earliest evidence of PRECAMBRIAN life = 3.8 billion 4500 - years ago. ARCHEAN 2500 Earth forms = 4.5 billion years ago. 8 9 QUICK APES NOTES Earth Science - Earth made of core (solid inner, molten outer, iron), mantle (mostly solid rock, asthenosphere flowing), lithosphere (contains crust) - Lithosphere broken into tectonic plates, largest is Pacific Plate Plate Boundaries- where 2 plates touch - Convergent boundary- pushed toward each other - Divergent boundary- moving away from each other - Transform fault boundary- slide from side to side Volcanoes - Volcano- mountains formed by magma from Earth's interior - Active volcanoes- currently erupting or have erupted in recorded history - Dormant volcanoes- never known to erupt - Extinct volcanoes- never erupt again - Rift volcanoes- plates move away from each other - Subduction volcanoes- plates collide and slide over each other - Hot spot volcanoes- found at areas where magma rises to surface, Hawaiian islands Earthquakes From vibrations of plate movements deep in Earth - Focus- location where earthquake begins inside Earth - Epicenter- spot on surface of earth directly above focus - Seismograph- measures size or magnitude Rock Cycle - Sedimentary- sediments build up and compress, limestone - Metamorphic- pressure and heat applied to rock inside Earth's mantle, slate - Igneous- rock melts and resolidifies, magma comes to surface, emerges as lava, cools to make rock, basalt 9 10 Atmosphere Layer of gases covering Earth = troposphere (weather, clouds), tropopause (temp increases), stratosphere (greenhouse effect from ozone), mesosphere (meteors burn up), thermosphere (aka ionosphere, absorbs solar wind from Sun) Climate - Weather- day to day temperature, pressure, sunlight, wind speed, humidity - Climate- constant patterns of an area - Tilt on Earth's axis causes seasons - Convection currents- vertical currents that rise from warm gases expanding and becoming less dense - Dew point- temperature water vapor condenses into liquid - Precipitation- fallen condensation (frozen or liquid) Weather - Monsoon- hot air rises from hot land, creates low-pressure system, rising air cools and moisture falls, MASSIVE RAINFALL - Rain shadow effect- air from body of water moves inland and runs into mountain, rises and on other side, no moisture left - Hurricane- intense tropical storms (typhoon or cyclone in Pacific Ocean) Water - Watershed- where water from a particular stream collects and drains into - Delta- where rivers meet ocean, made of deposited sediments - Estuary- freshwater and saltwater mix, rich with species - Wetlands- marshes, swamps, bogs, prairie potholes, flood plains, ecologically diverse - Groundwater- water below ground, can be from wells or aquifers (layers of Earth or gravel with water) Freshwater Layers - Littoral- shallow water at shoreline - Limnetic- open water, sunlight can penetrate - Profundal- no sunlight (aphotic) - Benthic zone- low temp and low oxygen Ocean Layers - Coastal zone- between shore and end of continental shelf - Euphotic zone- upper layers of water - Bathyal- no photosynthesis, middle region - Abyssal zone- deep ocean, very cold, little dissolved oxygen, high nutrients 10