Earth and Environmental Sciences Library Neloy Khare Editor Assessing the Antarctic Environment from a Climate Change Perspective An Integrated Approach Earth and Environmental Sciences Library EarthandEnvironmentalSciencesLibrary(EESL)isamultidisciplinarybookseries focusing on innovative approaches and solid reviews to strengthen the role of the EarthandEnvironmentalSciencescommunities,whilealsoprovidingsoundguid- ance for stakeholders, decision-makers, policymakers, international organizations, andNGOs. Topics of interest include oceanography, the marine environment, atmospheric sciences, hydrology and soil sciences, geophysics and geology, agriculture, envi- ronmental pollution, remote sensing, climate change, water resources, and natural resourcesmanagement.Inpursuitofthesetopics,theEarthSciencesandEnviron- mentalSciencescommunitiesareinvitedtosharetheirknowledgeandexpertisein theformofeditedbooks,monographs,andconferenceproceedings. Moreinformationaboutthisseriesathttps://link.springer.com/bookseries/16637 Neloy Khare Editor Assessing the Antarctic Environment from a Climate Change Perspective An Integrated Approach Editor NeloyKhare GovernmentofIndia MinistryofEarthSciences NewDelhi,India ISSN2730-6674 ISSN2730-6682 (electronic) EarthandEnvironmentalSciencesLibrary ISBN978-3-030-87077-5 ISBN978-3-030-87078-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-87078-2 ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2022 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuse ofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbook arebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsor theeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforany errorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictional claimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Foreword Antarctica is the last great untouched wilderness. Antarctica’s frozen continent is an incredible continent of stunning and alien beauty with a rich history of adven- ture,exploration,anddiscovery.Itisknownfordiversifieduniquenessandisakey tounderstandinghowanthropogenicactivitiesadverselyimpacttheworld’sclimate and carry an associated impact on it. Indubitably, Antarctica is also essential for science because of its profound effect on the Earth’s climate and ocean systems which has also revealed much about the impact of human activity on the natural world. TheloomingdangerofglobalwarmingonAntarcticaisnotconfinedbutspreading fast across the continent, long thought to be untouched by warming. But now, the glaciers and ice shelves in this frigid region are showing signs of melting. Such unprecedenteddevelopmentportendsdramaticrisesinsealevelsinthiscenturyand beyond. The collapse of the Larsen C ice shelf warns us against the Antarctic’s fragile environment. The subtle climatic changes may primarily pose dire global consequences because collapsing ice shelves prompt the glaciers behind them to retreatmorequickly,causingfurthersea-levelrise,thusincreasingperil,especially forislandcountries. SomeofthechangesAntarcticaisfacingarealreadyirreversible,andthesituation mayturnouttobedevastatingiftheissuesarenottimelymanagedthroughappro- priatestrategies.Totacklethepotentialimpactofclimate,itbecomesimperativeto preparefuturisticclimatechangetrendstopreparehumankindinalargerperspec- tive.Itnecessitatesanin-depthassessmentoftheAntarcticEnvironmentthroughan integratedapproach. Overfourdecades,IndiahasbeenactivelypursuingAntarcticresearchcommen- suratewithitsscientificstrengthandglobalvisibility.Aparticularfocushasbeenpaid towardsclimatechange.Thepresentbook,AssessingtheAntarcticEnvironmentfrom Climate Change perspective: An Integrated Approach, provides a comprehensive overviewofAntarcticEnvironmentalchangesinspaceandtimeandassessesclimate changescenariosinthepresentcontextglobalwarming.Itisaptlybroughtoutwith eighteendedicatedchapters,whereeachchapterhasitsspecificsignificance. v vi Foreword ThebookbeginswithDhanasreeJayaram’sdetailedaccountoncurrentgeopolit- icalissuesarisingoutofongoingenvironmentalshiftduetounfavourableactivities elsewhere, causing damage to the icy continent’s pristine nature requiring a firm committedandtransparentAntarcticGovernance.DastidarandKhareusedthedata obtainedfromthewebofscienceandanalysedvarioustrendsandpatternsfromthe scientificliteratureonAntarcticClimateChangescience.Suchanalysessignificantly impactthedirectionofthepresentresearchtohelpunderstandclimatechangeand variability.Subsequently,adetailedassessmentismadebyChoudharyandKhareon howclimatechangeovertheAntarcticandtheSouthernOceanimpactstheglobal climatesystem.Gleaningcluesdrawnfromthemarinesedimentaryrecords.Singh et al. illustriously elaborated Cenozoic Evolution of Antarctic Ice sheet, Circum AntarcticCirculationandAntarcticclimate. TounderstandtheAntarcticregion’sclimatescenarios,afirmunderstandingofthe pastclimaticevolutionisexcitingandakeyfactor.Babaetal.studiedthevariationsin thecosmogenicradionuclides.Theyreconstructedtheclimaticconditionsandglacial history over the DronningMaudland region. Whereas’ Shrivastava et al. utilised yet another proxy (Terrestrial Diamicts and Lacustrine Sediments) to illuminate LateQuaternaryClimateChangeinSchirmacherRegion,EastAntarctica.Itiswell corroboratedwithGovilandMazumder’sfocusedreviewonlacustrinesignaturesof thepalaeoclimaticconditions.Glacial-interglacialpaleoenvironmentalrecordshave beenretrievedfromlakesedimentsofSchirmacherOasis,EastAntarctica,byWarier etal. Onthecontrary,NutrientcyclingandproductivityinAntarcticlakeshavebeen detailedbyChoudharyetal.Incontrast,theChemicalandisotopiccharacterisation oflakesintheLarsemannHills,EastAntarctica,hasbeenaddressedbyReshmietal. Gwaletal.studiedtheeffectofIonosphericscintillationandobservedthelossof lock-inGPSsignals.FurthertheeffectofIonosphericScintillationonthepositional error and loss of lock of GPS Signal have also been investied in details by Gwal et al. Towards understanding biological response to ongoing climate changes over theAntarcticregion,PandeandKuppusamyhighlightedthattherapidchangesinthe physicalenvironmentoftheAntarcticandtheSouthernOceanaffectmarinelifeatall trophiclevels,fromtheprimarypreyspecies(zooplanktonincludingAntarcticKrill) tomesopredators(likesquids)totoppredatorssuchasmarinemammalsandseabirds. TheyalsopostulatedthattheSeabirdpopulationsacrosstheglobearethreatenedwith human-inducedchanges.Long-termmonitoringprogramshavehighlightedexciting trends,includingforeseenthreatsandthedecliningstatusofseabirdsworldwide. Similarly, Nayaka and Rai have examined the response of Antarctic lichen to climatechange.Theirevaluationwasprimarilybasedontheevidencefromnatural gradientsandtemperatureenchantment.Simultaneously,Singhetal.foundahigher PigmentSynthesisrateinAntarcticPlantsasanadaptivesurvivalstrategyunderU.V. radiation. Catherine et al. have provided an overview of Antarctica’s Geoscience studies. In contrast, the Antarctic region’s seismogenesis and seismic potential have been assessed for the future comprehensive study by Mishra. On the contrary, Sunil et al. demonstrated the Antarctic plate’s new kinematics using GPS and GRACE data. Foreword vii Understandingisacontinuousprocess,sotheScientificadvancementsinAntarctic Science may pose a more significant database to attend to challenging scientific questions. It requires enhanced monitoring, long-ranged time series climate data, efficientmodelsandstronginternationalcollaborationstohelpunderstandAntarctic climates’evolution. This book aptly consolidates recent scientific findings and insights related to theongoingclimatechangeinandaroundtheAntarcticregionthroughanintegrated approach.Thisbookwillactasareadyreferencetoallavidresearchersandstudents. ThisbookwillbeagoodsourceofinformationabouttheAntarcticclimateand actasareferenceforstudents,professionalsandresearchers. April2021 A.E.Muthunayagam FormerSecretary,Department ofOceanDevelopment GovernmentofIndia Thiruvananthapuram,India Preface Over 100 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Gondwana gradually broke apart with passing time, and Antarctica in its present situationwasformedaround25millionyearsago,owingtotheopeningoftheDrake PassagebetweenitandSouthAmerica.Thevastfrozenlandmassatthesouthernmost partoftheplanetismorethanjustspectacular icingworldwide.TheAntarcticice deflectssomeofthesun’sraysawayfromtheEarth,keepingtemperaturesliveable. Itcouldbevitalforoursurvivaltoo. Historically, the first confirmed sighting of mainland Antarctica was recorded onJanuary27,1820.Antarctica’sdiscoveryisattributedtotheRussianexpedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. They discovered aniceshelfatPrincessMarthaCoast,subsequentlyknownastheFimbulIceShelf. Thiscontinentcarriesmanysuperlativeslikeitholdsmostoftheworld’sfreshwater butremainsadesert.Antarcticausedtobeaswarmasanyothertropicalplace.The Antarctic,whichhasactivevolcanoesandseveralsubglaciallakes,hasnotimezone. Owing to ongoing global warming, the Antarctic Peninsula has become one of Earth’s most rapidly warming areas. The high ice sheet and the polar loca- tion make Antarctica a powerful heat sink that strongly affects the climate of the wholeEarth.TheAntarcticicesheetcontainssufficienticetoraiseworldwidesea levelbymorethan60metersifmeltedcompletely.ThroughAntarctica,wecanunder- standtheEarth’spast,present,andfuture.Italsoexhibitsaplatformtounderstand andvalueourplanet.TheicesheetsovertheAntarcticregionalsoholdsoverhalf- million-yearsoldclimaticchangesignatures.Themajorthreatstothispristineregion areclimatechangewhichisthegreatestlong-termthreattothearea,increasedfishing pressureandillegalfishing,marinepollution,persistentorganicpollutants(POPs), andinvasivespecies.ItisnowafactthatAntarcticaanditssurroundingwatersare underpressurefromavarietyofforcesthatarealreadytransformingthearea.The mostimmediatethreatsareregionalwarming,oceanacidification,andseaiceloss,all linkedtogloballevelsofcarbondioxide.EnvironmentalimpactsinAntarcticaoccur at a range of scales. Global warming, ozone depletion, and global contamination haveplanet-wideconsequences.TheseaffectAntarcticaatthemostsignificantscale. Fishingandhuntinghavemorelocalizedimpactsbutstill,havethepotentialtocause ix x Preface region-wide effects. Indubitably, if all the ice covering Antarctica, Greenland, and mountainglaciersworldwideweretomelt,thesealevelwouldriseabout70meters. Theoceanwouldcoverallthecoastalcities,andthelandareawouldshrinksignifi- cantly.However,alltheiceisnotgoingtomelt.Altogether,GreenlandandAntarc- ticahavelost6.4trilliontonsoficesincethe1990s.Theresultingmeltwaterboosted globalsealevelsby0.7inches.Therefore,itisessentialbutvitaltounderstandthe environmentalconditionsvis-a-vistheimpactofglobalclimatechangeonthisicy continent. The present book Assessing the Antarctic Environment from Climate Change perspective: An Integrated Approach attempts to address various facets of the climatechangebeingwitnessedovertheAntarcticregion.Thebookbeginswiththe Geopolitics,EnvironmentalChangeandAntarcticGovernanceablyhighlightedby DhanasreeJayaram.AlthoughtheAntarcticTreaty(AT)isconsideredasuccessful exampleofsciencediplomacy,ascountrieshavesetasidetheirterritorialclaimsand the continent is a nuclear-free zone by shifting focus to scientific cooperation, its futureremainsuncertainwiththesedevelopments.Sciencediplomacyalwaysgoes hand in hand with geopolitics. The AT that reflects Cold War geopolitics needs to be modified to represent present-day geopolitical realities for it to be enduring. A transformative approach to Antarctic governance (including the Southern Ocean), especially in terms of its resources, needs to be adopted. This chapter is followed bydetaileddataanalysesobtainedfromthewebofsciencedealingwiththeclimate change-related research over Antarctica by world’s researchers by Dastidar and Khare. Their efforts observe peculiar trends and patterns in the climate change researchsuggestingpriorityforclimatechangeresearchsincethe1970s.Choudhary andKharehaveaddressedtheclimatechangeovertheAntarcticandtheSouthern Oceananditsimpactandbearingontheglobalclimatesystem.Theyadvocatedfora thoroughunderstandingandknowledgeofthecausesandimpactsofclimatechange andthedurationandratesofchange,requiringtheintegrationofobservationaland modellingknowledgefromallEarthsystem-basedscientificdisciplines. In a significant manner, Singh et al. put forth the evolution of the Antarctic Ice sheet, Circum Antarctic Circulation, and Antarctic climate during Cenozoic by gleaning clues from marine sedimentary records. This chapter ably covers the geological evidence for the origin and evolution of the Antarctic Ice sheet, which primarilyincludesmarinesedimentsdepositedfromsoutherntolowerlatitudesand summarizescrucialresearchregardingtheoriginanddevelopmentoftheAntarctic IceSheet(AIS)andofferssomefuturedirectionsforresearch. While Baba et al. utilized cosmogenic radionuclides to reconstruct the glacial history of the Dronning Maudland region of East Antarctica, this chapter delib- erates on the comprehensive outline of DML, basics of cosmogenic radionuclide and its application, and major glacial events from DML. Further, meltwater pulse due to deglaciation of EAIS and evidence related to the marine isotope stages are discussedtounderstandtheimpactofdeglaciationontheglobalocean.Thisregion shows sparse or no evidence of ice thickening during the last glacial maximum (LGM). Field observations and ice core models show that the ice sheet’s interior parts,theicedome,werepossibly100mlowerduringLGMthanthepresent.Onthe