Critical Thinking: Intellectual Standards Essential to Reasoning Well Within Every Domain of Human Thought, Part 3 By Linda Elder and Richard Paul In the last two columns in this critical thinking series we briefly introduced inside texture, outside crust texture, thickness, lightness, and so forth. A and discussed the concept of intellectual standards in connection with natu- pastry chef creating recipes would use not only global standards, such as ral languages. We presented nine essential intellectual standards: clarity, these, for assessing the quality of bread but more precise and particular precision, accuracy, relevance, depth, breadth, logicalness, significance, and standards relevant to our taste and situation. These standards might fairness. These nine intellectual standards are part of a much broader set of include a specific degree of rise of the loaf, specific consistency of inner intellectual standards found in all natural languages. Natural, or ordinary, and outer texture, specific taste and weight of the loaf, and so forth. Once languages are those languages we speak every day and are to be distinguished particular standards for a recipe have been determined, each loaf baked from technical languages such as those developed in mathematics, formal thereafter would be compared with the set criteria. The quality of each logic, and other specialized fields. Throughout recorded history, scholars loaf would be judged based on these standards. within disciplines and skilled thinkers in all parts of human life have applied • To determine whether a tennis player under a coach’s direction was universal intellectual standards to human reasoning, at differing levels and likely to compete well at a particular level of play, the coach might first to varying degrees. The concept of criticality itself presupposes adherence to look at the average skill level of top contenders and use that skill level relevant intellectual standards (such as accuracy, relevance, logic, and so forth). to formulate a set of standards by which to judge the competitiveness of In this column, we briefly analyze the concept of intellectual standards the trainee’s skills. Standards, would be determined by considering back as an intellectual construct. Further, we explore the important realization court performance, net court performance, fitness level, mental stamina that though humans routinely use standards to determine what to believe under pressure, average first and second serve percentages, ratios of wins and how to act, these standards are not always intellectual in nature. to errors, the player’s “track record” against established players, and so Exploring the Concept of Standards on and comparing skills in these categories with the standards set by the top players. Every term in the English language (and in all ordinary languages) has • To assess the quality of an actor auditioning for a play the director might established uses that are found in well-researched dictionaries. Thus, to consider the quality and intonation of voice as well as the ability of the conceptualize intellectual standards, it is important to consider established actor to deliver the lines in a convincing manner, to portray a given uses of the terms “intellectual” and ”standards” (as well as related terms)and character accurately, to connect emotionally with the audience, and so integrate insights from this analysis to formulate a reasonable conception forth. The director would have standards in mind—based in personal of intellectual standards. judgment regarding analysis of the play and the role of various characters Beginning with the term standard or its synonym “criterion,” consider in it—for each of these categories and compare audition performance the following definitions: with them. Standard applies to some measure, principle, model, etc. with which The use of standards in human life is routine and pervasive. It is not pos- things of the same class are compared in order to determine their quan- sible to form judgments without, at least, presupposing standards. Moreover, tity, value, quality, etc. [standard of purity for drugs]. Criterion applies for every skill area, there are standards to which people attempting to develop to a test or rule for measuring the excellence, fitness, or correctness those skills aspire – in music, art, sports, parenting, marriage, public speaking, of something [mere memory is no accurate criterion of intelligence]. theatre, science, literature, architecture, indeed in every domain of human (Wiley Publishing, 2007) thought and action. Thus standards and criteria are rules or principles used to determine the Of course, people are differently motivated and have varying capacities quality of something and, accordingly, whether to accept or reject it. These for development in any particular skill area. It might behoove everyone criteria are used to judge or decide upon something, and can usually be used to consider the standards each strives to fulfill in living individual lives synonymously for this purpose. and to raise these standards to the conscious level. By taking command of Standards Are Prevalent in Everyday Life standards, individuals take command of the thoughts, desires, and emotions that determine the quality of personal lives. Humans routinely use judgment in determining what to accept and what to reject; this is impossible without standards or criteria. Consider the following Exploring the Term Intellectual examples, paying particular attention to the standards used to determine Now that the common uses of the term standards and some sense of the quality in each case: role that standards play in human life have been outlined, we consider the • To determine whether a loaf of bread is of acceptable quality, we might term ”intellectual.” Grasping the meaning of this term requires considering use the following standards, among others: the degree of rise of the loaf, not only the term intellectual but related terms such as ”intelligent” and 32 JournAl of DeVeloPmentAl eDuCAtIon ”the intellect.” Further, such an analysis requires tracing some important inner structure of thought or its global qualities, intellectual standards are meanings implied by these terms and their interrelationships. essential to functioning as reasonable, fairminded persons. However, most The term intellectual often means requiring the intellect or having or people rarely seem to reflect upon the standards they use to determine what showing a high degree of intelligence. The term intellect implies the ability to to accept and what to reject. Consequently, and because the fulfillment of reason or understand or to perceive relationships, differences, and so forth. It intellectual standards is not natural to the mind, people tend to use default refers to that part of the mind that knows or understands. It may also imply standards, ones that are often highly egocentric and sociocentric. Conversely, the power of thought, great mental ability, or a high degree of intelligence. fairminded critical thinkers recognize the primary role of meeting intellectual The terms intelligent or intelligence imply having or showing an alert mind, standards in living a fulfilling, rational life. They therefore routinely work bright, perceptive, informed, clever, and wise. They also generally imply the to meet these standards. They typically recognize when they, or others, are ability to learn or understand from experience, the ability to acquire and failing to meet them. retain knowledge, and the ability to respond quickly and successfully to new Closing situations. And they characteristically imply or presuppose use of the faculty of reason in solving problems, directing conduct successfully, and making In the next column we will detail some constellations of intellectual standards, sound judgments (Wiley Publishing, 2007). thereby illuminating the interconnectedness of these standards as well as Note that within these meanings are several important concepts whose some fine distinctions among them. We will also differentiate between micro meanings are essential to understanding intellectual standards: to reason, intellectuals standards and macro intellectual standards, and briefly discuss to know or comprehend, and to make sound judgments. “To reason” entails the common human problem of vested interest as a barrier to the adherence the power to think rationally and logically and to draw inferences. “To of intellectual standards. These theoretical distinctions are important, in understand” is the faculty by which one understands, often together with order to help students learn to reason with skill within the disciplines. the resulting comprehension. It entails superior power of discernment or Reference enlightened intelligence. “To make sound judgments” is the ability to assess Wiley Publishing. (2007). Webster’s new world college dictionary (4th ed.). Hoboken, situations or circumstances logically or accurately and draw reasonable NJ: Author. conclusions. “To know or comprehend” means to have a clear perception or understanding of, to be sure of. It entails clear and certain mental apprehen- Linda Elder is an educational psychologist and president of the Foundation sion (Wiley Publishing, 2007). for Critical Thinking. Richard Paul is director of the Center for Critical Thinking The term intellectual, when integrated with related terms, thus entails and director of research of the Foundation for Critical Thinking, Tomales, CA: the use of sound reasoning and judgment in the pursuit of knowledge. It www.criticalthinking.org typically implies the superior powers of the intellect as well as the ability to use one’s mind to make intelligent decisions, to use the faculty of reason in solving problems, and directing conduct successfully. Finally, it suggests clear perception and the logical drawing of inferences. The Concept of Intellectual Standards Taking into account the previous meanings and analysis, we conceptualize intellectual standards in the following way: the standards necessary for making sound judgments or for reason- ing well, for forming knowledge (as opposed to unsound beliefs), for intelligent understanding, and for thinking rationally and logically. In short, we use the term intellectual standards to mean standards that further good judgment and rational understanding. They are essential for the mind’s on-going awareness and assessment of the strengths and weaknesses in personal thinking and in the thinking of others. Whether focused on the continued from page 28 Presmeg, N. C. (2006). Research on visualization in learn ing and teaching mathematics: Emergence from psycho logy. In A. Gutierrez & P. Boero (Eds.), Handbook of research on the psychology of mathematics education: Past, present, and future (pp. 205-235). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Sand, M. (1996). A function is a mail carrier. Mathematics Teacher, 89(6), 468-469. Saul, M. (2001). Algebra: What are we teaching? In A. A. Cuoco & F. R. Curcio (Eds.), The roles of representation in school mathematics: 2001 yearbook (pp. 35-43). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Steffe, L. P. (1991). The constructivist teaching experiment. In E. Von Glasersfeld (Ed.), Radical constructivism in mathe matics education. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer. Steffe, L. P., & Thompson, P. W. (2000). Teaching experiment methodology: Underlying principles and essential elements. In R. A. Lesh & A. E. Kelly (Eds.), Handbook of research design in mathematics and science education (pp. 267-306). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Tuckett, A. G. (2005). Part II. Rigour in qualitative research: Complexities and solutions. Nurse Researcher, 13(1), 29-42. Van de Walle, J. A. (2007). Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching devel- op mentally. Boston, MA: Pearson. 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