EVIDENCE OF ORPHIC MYSTERY CULT IN ARCHAIC MACEDONIAN AND THRACIAN BURIALS by Lisa Tweten A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in The Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies (Ancient Cultures, Religion and Ethnicity) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) October 2015 © Lisa Tweten, 2015 Abstract Gold foil is found in numerous burials in the Mediterranean dating to the early Mycenaean period and the material was used as clothing attachments, jewelry, headbands, wreaths, and other decorative adornments. One of the more distinctive uses of gold foil was as a mouth-plate (or epistomion), which is an ellipsoidal or rhomboidal piece of gold foil placed on the mouth of the deceased in a burial. An apparent increase in artifact occurrence in Macedonia during the archaic period was the impetus for this thesis, as a change in grave goods suggests a change in funerary rituals. This change may be linked to the rise of local private cults, including mystery cults, that took place in the archaic period. Furthermore, these artifacts are stylistically, materially, and contextually similar to the later Classical and Hellenistic periods use of gold foil for the inscribed Orphic gold tablets. The inscribed Orphic tablets have clear links to mystery cults and are related to both the initiation and the afterlife expectations of the deceased. Taking a selection of the uninscribed gold foil mouth-plates found in archaic burials of Macedonia and Thrace, this thesis examines the potential links between these two practices and asks whether the uninscribed gold foil mouth-plates can be assigned to the category of 'things Orphic', or if they are part of an unrelated burial tradition. While it is difficult to arrive at a definitive classification for these artifacts at the moment, this thesis offers a starting point to place the archaic mouth-plates in their proper social, cultural, and ritual context. ii Preface This dissertation is original, unpublished, independent work by the author, Lisa Tweten. iii Table of Contents Abstract......................................................................................................................................................ii Preface......................................................................................................................................................iii Table of Contents......................................................................................................................................iv List of Tables.............................................................................................................................................vi List of Figures..........................................................................................................................................vii Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................................viii Introduction................................................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................6 Distribution of Epistomia..........................................................................................................................7 The Gold Masks.......................................................................................................................................10 Social Significance...................................................................................................................................12 Iconography.............................................................................................................................................15 Lamellae and Epistomia...........................................................................................................................20 Mnemonic, Proxy, and “Silent” Epistomia..............................................................................................22 Literacy and Writing................................................................................................................................24 Symbolic Muteness..................................................................................................................................27 Chapter 2 Definitions and Evidence of Orphism......................................................................................................32 The Derveni Papyrus................................................................................................................................36 iv The Olbian Bone Tablets..........................................................................................................................37 Initiation Rites..........................................................................................................................................40 Dionysiac or Orphic?...............................................................................................................................43 Chapter 3 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................47 Ruler Cults...............................................................................................................................................49 Local Cults in Macedonia........................................................................................................................51 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................................56 Bibliography.............................................................................................................................................59 Appendix A..............................................................................................................................................66 v List of Tables Table 1........................................................................................................................................................8 Table 2........................................................................................................................................................8 vi List of Figures Figure 1....................................................................................................................................................17 Figure 2....................................................................................................................................................22 vii Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge my advisor, Dr. Robert Cousland, for his patience, guidance and support. I would also like to thank my committee, Dr. Hector Williams and Dr. Michael Griffin for their very helpful comments and questions. Completing this work would have been all but impossible without the support of my cohort in the CNERS department, and I would also like to thank Gwynaeth McIntyre, Shalini Tandon, and David Gardner for reading early drafts and providing much needed guidance. Special thanks are owed to my family, who have supported me throughout my years of education. viii Introduction This thesis examines a selection of the uninscribed gold foil mouth-plates found in archaic burials of Macedonia and Thrace and asks whether the artifacts in question can be assigned to the category of ‘things Orphic’, or if they are part of an unrelated burial tradition. Gold foil is a common component in burials going back to the early Minoan period; the material was used as clothing attachments, jewelry, headbands, wreaths, and other adornments. Among them are artifacts called lamellae and epistomia that are considered to be symbols of religious beliefs; the best known of these are the Orphic gold tablets that are presumed to indicate initiation in an Orphic cult. However, the terms lamella, epistomion, and ‘Orphic’ all need to be defined before we can proceed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Gender Studies is one of the few sources to provide a definition of lamellae, which it describes as “thin sheets of metal that are inscribed and then folded and placed inside a capsule to be worn, usually around the neck.”1 For the purposes of this study, lamella will be used to refer to gold foil sheets with text, regardless of placement.2 Gold foil sheets have also been found in burials situated at the base of the skull, and these are typically referred to as epistomia because they were placed on the deceased's mouth; Fritz Graf and Sarah Iles Johnston use the term sparingly in the first chapter of Ritual Texts for the 1 Nicola Denzey Lewis, “Material Culture: Votives, Lamellae and Defixiones, and Amulets.” Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Gender Studies. O'Brien, Julia M., and Oxford Reference Library. (Oxford; New York; Oxford University Press, 2014), http://www.oxfordreference.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/view/10.1093/acref:obso/9780199836994.001.0001/acref- 9780199836994-e-31?rskey=WwCr8f&result=1. 2 Fritz Graf and Sarah Iles Johnston, Ritual Texts for the Afterlife: Orpheus and the Bacchic Gold Tablets. (2 ed. (New York; London: Routledge, 2013), 4. An example of a lamella is the inscribed tablet from Hipponion which was in a woman's burial, folded on her chest and may have been worn around the neck on a string. 1 Afterlife: Orpheus and the Bacchic Gold Tablets, seemingly only in cases where the placement of the artifact is known to have been on or inside the skull upon excavation. By these definitions, an artifact can be both a lamella and an epistomion, as is the case with no. 36a in Graf and Johnston's study, which represents an “undisclosed number of gold tablets from fifteen cist- graves...each placed in the mouth of the deceased.”3 Yannis Tzifopoulos, however, frequently uses the terms lamella and epistomion interchangeably when describing the gold tablets in his 2010 publication, Paradise Earned: The Bacchic-Orphic Gold Lamellae of Crete, and in at least one case uses both epistomion and lamella to refer to a rectangular sheet of gold foil with no evidence of an inscription that was found in situ in the woman's pelvic bones.4 There exist, then, some distinctions of terminology in the scholarship on Orphic tablets, lamellae and epistomia. This thesis focuses on epistomia without text and the evidence presented is based on gold foil artifacts described as ‘mouth-pieces’, ‘mouth-covers’ or epistomia. In addition, I draw on the 2004 MA thesis of Stavroula Oikonomou, who focused exclusively on gold foil known to have been used as a face cover, with the exception of the pieces in museums or private collections for which there is no provenance or excavation data available. While I have only included in my count of epistomia those artifacts which are reported as mouth-plates, mouth-covers, or epistomia, I cannot state with complete certainty that the terminology used in the excavation reports that form the background of this study are as strict in their designation of ‘mouth-plate' as Graf and Johnston are in their publication. 3 Graf and Johnston 2013, 46. 4 Yannis Tzifopoulos, Paradise Earned: The Bacchic-Orphic Gold Lamellae of Crete. (Vol. 23. Washington, D.C; Cambridge, Mass: Center for Hellenic Studies, 2010), 31. 2