Free Trade and Uneven Development Free Trade and Uneven Development The North American Apparel Industry after NAFTA   Gary Gereffi, David Spener, and Jennifer Bair     Temple University Press, Philadelphia  Copyright © by Temple University All rights reserved Published  Printed in the United States ofAmerica The paper used in this publication meets the requirements ofthe American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence ofPaper for Printed Library Materials, z.- Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Free trade and uneven development : the North American apparel industry after NAFTA / edited by Gary Gereffi, David Spener, and Jennifer Bair. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ---X (cloth : alk. paper) — ---(pbk. : alk. paper) . Clothing trade—North America. . Clothing trade—Government policy—North America. . Textile industry—North America. . Textile industry—Government policy—North America. . Free trade—North America. . Canada. Treaties, etc.  Oct. . I. Gereffi, Gary. II. Spener, David, – III. Bair, Jennifer, – .   '.'–dc  Contents List of Tables and Figures vii Acknowledgments xi Part I: Analytical Overview . :          David Spener, Gary Gereffi, and Jennifer Bair .      :  ,  ,     Jennifer Bair and Gary Gereffi Part II: The Changing Face of the Apparel Industry in the United States .         :        Florence Palpacuer .               Judi A. Kessler .       :  ,  ,  ,    Robert J. S. Ross .        ’ Edna Bonacich vi  Part III: The U.S.-Mexico Border Region .   :           ,   David Spener . :                 Robine van Dooren .                Jorge Carrillo, Alfredo Hualde, and Araceli Almaraz Part IV: Interior Mexico . :          Gary Gereffi, Martha Martínez, and Jennifer Bair .           Enrique Dussel Peters, Clemente Ruiz Durán, and Michael J. Piore .         ..   Ulrik Vangstrup .  ,  :          Jorge Mendoza, Fernando Pozos Ponce, and David Spener Part V: Central America and the Caribbean .                 Michael Mortimore .      -  ’    Dale T. Mathews Part VI: Conclusion .            Jennifer Bair, David Spener, and Gary Gereffi  About the Contributors  Index List of Tables and Figures Tables . Employment in the North American Apparel Industry, ‒  . World’s Leading Apparel Exporters, ‒  . U.S. Apparel Imports by Region and Country, ‒  . U.S. Apparel Imports: Total and ⁄Trade by Mexico and Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) Countries, ‒  . Apparel Plants in Mexico and the Caribbean Basin,   . Ethnic Distribution of Resident Labor Force, New York City Garment Industry,   . Ethnic Distribution of Resident Labor Force, New York City Garment Industry,   . Characteristics of Firms Interviewed in New York City’s Women’s Wear Industry  . Interview Guidelines  . Typology of Firms’ Profiles in New York City’s Women’s Wear Industry  . Apparel (SIC ) Employment: Los Angeles County, ‒  . Los Angeles County Apparel Industry Employment (SIC ): Sewing and Nonsewing, Selected Years  . Factors Contributing to Increased Hiring, by Occupation and Number of Firms Reporting ()  . Factors Contributing to Decreased Hiring, by Occupation and Number of Firms Reporting ()  . Retail Concentration in the “Top ,”‒  . Import Penetration in U.S. Apparel Market, ‒  . Typology of Old and New Sweatshops in the United States  viii      . Distribution of the Economically Active Population of El Paso, Texas, by Ethnicity and Nativity,   . Selected Characteristics of the Economically Active Population of El Paso, Texas,   . Population, Employment, and Wages in El Paso and Cd. Juárez,   . Number of Companies and Employees in the Garment Industry for Selected U.S. Cities  . Number of Companies and Employees in the Clothing Industry in Several Mexican Cities,   . Typology of Companies in the El Paso–Cd. Juárez Sample  . Main Clients for Torreón Apparel Exports  . Apparel Industry Indicators for La Laguna Area  . General Data on Garment Industry, ‒  . Mexico: Exports, Imports, and Trade Balance, ‒  . Mexico: Export Structure, ‒  . Maquiladora Exports of Garments in Mexico, ‒  . Mexico’s Textile and Apparel Exports  . Exports of Selected Knitwear Products by Nonmaquiladora Manufacturers, ‒  . Knitwear-Producing Industrial Clusters  . Mexican Consumption of Domestically Produced and Imported Finished Garments, ‒  . Mexican Imports of Garments and Accessories by Country of Origin, ‒  . Principal Types of Retail Clothing Outlets in Mexico  . Percent Share of Mexican Retail Clothing Sales Captured by Enterprises of Different Types  . Mexican Retail Clothing Sales in ,by Type of Enterprise and Class of Customer  . Distribution of Value Added among Three Types of Distribution Channels for Imported Clothing in Guadalajara,   . The Principal Country Sources of Apparel (SITC ‒) for the North American Market during ‒  . Dominican Republic: Its Competitiveness in the North American Market, ‒  . Costa Rica: Its Competitiveness in the North American Market, ‒  . Labor Costs in the Apparel Industry, ‒       ix . Dominican Republic EPZ Employment and Exports, ‒  . Export Processing Zones, December   . Export-Processing Zone Investments by Country of Origin  . Country of Origin for Imports by Number of EPZ Firms  . Value of Principal U.S. Imports of Textiles and Clothing Originating from the Dominican Republic  . Value of U.S. MFA Imports under USTS () by Principal Beneficiaries, and   . Quotas for the Caribbean—Trade Partnership Act, :Fabric  . Quotas for the Caribbean—Trade Partnership Act, :T-Shirts  Figures . Employment in Mexico’s Apparel Maquiladoras, ‒  . Los Angeles County Apparel Firms Sourcing Profile  . Difference in February-to-May Apparel Employment, Los Angeles County, ‒  . De Facto Deregulation: Employees per Wage and Hours Investigator, Selected Years, ‒  . Average Annual Apparel Employment in El Paso, Texas, ‒  . Supply Chain for Verde  . Supply Chain for Rojo and Azul  . Traditional Interfirm Networks in Monterrey  . Original Equipment Manufacturing Networks in Monterrey  . Original Brand-Name Networks in Monterrey  . Traditional Maquiladora Networks in Juárez  . Interfirm Networks in Juárez: Vertical Disintegration with Local Linkages  . Apparel Commodity Chain: Activities and Location  . Pre-NAFTA Blue Jeans Assembly Networks  . Post-NAFTA Full-Package Networks in Torreón  . The Winners’ Circle: A Stylized History of the Economic Growth of Nations  . Shifts in the Regional Structure of North American (U.S. and Canadian) Apparel Imports (SITC ‒) during ‒  . Dominican Republic: Relationship between Relative Labor Costs and EPZ Employment 