Handbook of Environmental Engineering This new edition provides a practical view of pollution and its impact on the natural environment. Driven by the hope of a sustainable future, it stresses the importance of environmental law and resource sustainability and offers a wealth of information based on real-world observations and expert experience. It presents a basic overview of environmental pollution, emphasizes key terms, and addresses specific concepts in advanced algebra, fundamental engineering, and statistics. In addition, it considers socioeconomic, political, and cultural influences and provides an understanding of how to effectively treat and prevent air pollution, implement industrial hygiene principles, and manage solid waste, water, and wastewater operations. The Handbook of Environmental Engineering is written in a down-to-earth style for a wide audience, as it appeals to technical readers, consultants, policymakers, as well as a wide range of general readers. Features: • Updated throughout, with a new chapter on modern trends in environmental engineering, the book further emphasizes climate change effects on water/wastewater infrastructure • Examines the physical, chemical, and biological processes fundamental to understanding the environment fate and engineered treatment of environmental contaminants • Presents technologies to prevent pollution at the source as well as treatment and disposal methods for remediation • Identifies multiple environmental pollutants and explains the effects of each • Includes the latest environmental regulatory requirements. Handbook of Environmental Engineering Second Edition Frank R. Spellman Designed cover image: © Shutterstock Second edition published 2023 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 and by CRC Press 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC © 2023 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC First edition published by CRC Press 2016 Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and p ublishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected] Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Spellman, Frank R., author. Title: Handbook of environmental engineering / Frank R. Spellman. Description: 2nd edition. | Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2022040610 (print) | LCCN 2022040611 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032288079 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032288086 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003298601 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Pollution prevention–Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Environmental engineering–Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Environmental management–Handbooks, manuals, etc. Classification: LCC TD176.4 .S644 2023 (print) | LCC TD176.4 (ebook) | DDC 628–dc23/eng/20221012 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022040610 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022040611 ISBN: 978-1-032-28807-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-28808-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-29860-1 (ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9781003298601 Typeset in Times by codeMantra Contents A Note to the Reader: Will it be Milk Toast or Hardtack? ..........................................................xxvii Preface...........................................................................................................................................xxxi About the Author .......................................................................................................................xxxiii Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................1 Environment .................................................................................................................2 Pollution Defined ..........................................................................................................4 Key Terms................................................................................................................4 Pollution: Effects Easy to See, Feel, Taste or Smell ..............................................15 Unexpected Pollution .............................................................................................16 Pollution and Environmental Science/Health/Engineering ..................................16 Environmental Pollution and Technology: The Connection .................................18 Environmental Administrative Laws and Regulations ..............................................22 Administrative Procedure Act (APA) ....................................................................23 The Regulatory Process .........................................................................................23 Creating a Law ..................................................................................................23 Putting the Law to Work ...................................................................................23 Creating a Regulation .......................................................................................24 NEPA: Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) ..................................................24 A Word about Machine and Deep Learning ..............................................................25 The Bottom Line ........................................................................................................26 Notes ...........................................................................................................................27 References ..................................................................................................................27 Chapter 2 Units, Standards of Measurement, and Conversions ..................................................29 Units of Measurement: The Basics.............................................................................29 Conversion Factors ................................................................................................30 Weight, Concentration, and Flow .....................................................................31 Conversions ...........................................................................................................33 Typical Conversion Examples ...............................................................................34 Temperature Conversions .................................................................................39 MKS System (SI Units) .........................................................................................41 Energy Units and Math Operations ............................................................................42 Environmental Engineering: Perspective on Energy ............................................42 The 411 on Energy .................................................................................................43 Types of Energy ................................................................................................43 Measuring Energy ............................................................................................45 Clean Energy Parameters, Calculations and References .......................................46 Electricity Reduction (Kilowatt-Hours) ............................................................46 Gallons of Gasoline Consumed ........................................................................47 Passenger Vehicles per Year .............................................................................47 Miles Driven by the Average Passenger Vehicle per Year ...............................48 Therms of Natural Gas .....................................................................................49 Barrels of Oil Consumed ..................................................................................50 Tanker Trucks Filled with Gasoline .................................................................50 v vi Contents Number of Incandescent Bulbs Switched to Compact Fluorescent Bulbs (CFLs) .....................................................................................................50 Home Electricity Use ........................................................................................54 Home Energy Use .............................................................................................54 Number of Tree Seedlings Grown for 10 Years ...............................................56 Acres of U.S. Forests Storing Carbon for One Year .........................................56 Acres of U.S. Forest Preserved from Conversion to Croplands .......................58 Propane Cylinders Used for Home Barbecues .................................................60 Railcars of Coal Burned ...................................................................................61 Pounds of Coal Burned .....................................................................................61 Tons of Waste Recycled Instead of Landfilled .................................................62 Number of Garbage Trucks of Waste Recycled Instead of Landfilled .............62 Coal-Fired Power Plant Emissions for One Year .............................................63 Number of Wind Turbines Installed .................................................................63 Notes ...........................................................................................................................64 References ..................................................................................................................64 Chapter 3 Math Operations Review ............................................................................................65 Introduction ................................................................................................................65 Basic Math Terminology and Definitions ..................................................................65 Sequence of Operations ..............................................................................................66 Sequence of Operations—Rules ............................................................................66 Sequence of Operations—Examples .....................................................................67 Percent ........................................................................................................................68 Significant Digits ........................................................................................................72 Powers and Exponents ................................................................................................74 Averages (Arithmetic Mean) ......................................................................................76 Ratio ...........................................................................................................................78 Dimensional Analysis ................................................................................................81 Threshold Odor Number (TON) ................................................................................86 Geometrical Measurements........................................................................................87 Geometrical Calculations ......................................................................................88 Perimeter and Circumference ...........................................................................88 Area ..................................................................................................................91 Volume ..............................................................................................................94 Force, Pressure, and Head Calculations .....................................................................98 Force and Pressure.................................................................................................98 Head .......................................................................................................................98 Static Head ........................................................................................................99 Friction Head ....................................................................................................99 Velocity Head .................................................................................................100 Pressure/Head .................................................................................................100 Head/Pressure .................................................................................................100 Review of Advanced Algebra Key Terms/Concepts ................................................104 Key Definitions Include .......................................................................................104 Quadratic Equations .................................................................................................107 The Quadrtic Equation and Environmental Practice ..........................................107 Quadratic Equations: Theory and Application ....................................................107 Derivation of the Quadratic Equation Formula ...................................................108 Contents vii Using the Quadratic Equation ........................................................................110 Trigonometric Ratios ................................................................................................110 Trigonometric Functions and the Environmental Practitioner ............................110 Trigonometric Ratios or Functions .................................................................111 References ................................................................................................................112 Chapter 4 Environmental Modeling and Algorithms ...............................................................113 Introduction ..............................................................................................................113 Basic Steps for Developing an Effective Model .......................................................114 What Are Models Used For? ....................................................................................114 Media Material Content ...........................................................................................115 Material Content: Liquid Phases .........................................................................117 Phase Equilibrium and Steady State ........................................................................120 Math Operations and Laws of Equilibrium .............................................................120 Solving Equilibrium Problems ............................................................................120 Laws of Equilibrium ............................................................................................122 Ideal Gas Law .................................................................................................122 Dalton’s Law ...................................................................................................122 Raoult’s Law ...................................................................................................124 Henry’s Law ....................................................................................................124 Chemical Transport Systems ....................................................................................124 Algorithms: What Are They? ...................................................................................125 Expressing Algorithms ........................................................................................126 General Algorithm Applications .........................................................................127 The Problem....................................................................................................128 Environmental Practice Algorithm Applications ................................................128 Dispersion Models ....................................................................................................129 Screening Tools ........................................................................................................130 References ................................................................................................................130 Chapter 5 Statistics Review ......................................................................................................131 Statistical Concepts ..................................................................................................131 Probability and Statistics .....................................................................................132 Measure of Central Tendency ..............................................................................133 Symbols, Subscripts, Basic Statistical Terms and Calculations ...............................133 The Mean .............................................................................................................134 Median .................................................................................................................135 Mode ....................................................................................................................135 Range ...................................................................................................................135 Distribution ...............................................................................................................137 Normal Distribution ............................................................................................137 Standard Deviation ...................................................................................................139 Coefficient of Variation ............................................................................................141 Standard Error of the Mean .....................................................................................141 Covariance ................................................................................................................142 Simple Correlation Coefficient .................................................................................143 Variance of a Linear Function ..................................................................................144 Sampling—Measurement Variables .........................................................................146 Simple Random Sampling ...................................................................................146 viii Contents Standard Errors ...............................................................................................146 Confidence Limits...........................................................................................147 Sample Size.....................................................................................................148 Stratified Random Sampling ...............................................................................149 Sample Size.....................................................................................................151 Sampling—Discrete Variables .................................................................................152 Random Sampling ...............................................................................................152 Sample Size .........................................................................................................153 Cluster Sampling for Attributes ...............................................................................154 Transformations ...................................................................................................155 Chi-Square Tests ......................................................................................................155 Test of Independence ...........................................................................................155 Test of a Hypothesized Count ..............................................................................156 Bartlett’s Test of Homogeneity of Variance .............................................................157 Comparing Two Groups by the t Test .......................................................................158 The t Test for Unpaired Plots ...............................................................................158 Sample Size.....................................................................................................160 The t Test for Paired Plots ...................................................................................161 Number of Replicates .....................................................................................162 Comparison of Two or More Groups by Analysis of Variance ................................162 Complete Randomization ....................................................................................162 Multiple Comparisons .........................................................................................165 F Test with Single Degree of Freedom ...........................................................165 Scheffe’s Test ..................................................................................................166 Unequal Replication .......................................................................................167 Randomized Block Design ..................................................................................168 Latin Square Design ............................................................................................171 Factorial Experiments .........................................................................................173 Sums of Squares .............................................................................................175 The Split Plot Design ...........................................................................................179 Calculations ....................................................................................................180 Date-Burning SS .............................................................................................182 Missing Plots .......................................................................................................185 Regression ................................................................................................................186 Simple Linear Regression ....................................................................................186 How Well Does the Regression Line Fit the Data? .............................................189 Coefficient of Determination ...............................................................................190 Confidence Intervals ............................................................................................190 Multiple Regression .............................................................................................192 Tests of Significance .......................................................................................196 Coefficient of Multiple Determination ...........................................................197 The c-Multipliers ............................................................................................198 Curvilinear Regressions and Interactions ...........................................................198 Curves .............................................................................................................198 Interactions .....................................................................................................199 Group Regressions ..........................................................................................200 Testing for the Common Regressions .............................................................201 Analysis of Covariance in a Randomized Block Design ................................203 Adjusted Means ..............................................................................................206 Tests among Adjusted Means .........................................................................206 Note ..........................................................................................................................207 References ................................................................................................................207 Contents ix Chapter 6 Fundamental Engineering Concepts ........................................................................209 Deep and Gloomy Woods ........................................................................................209 Introduction ..............................................................................................................209 Resolution of Forces .................................................................................................210 Slings ...................................................................................................................212 Inclined Plane ......................................................................................................215 Properties of Materials and Principles of Mechanics ..............................................217 Properties of Materials ........................................................................................217 Friction ............................................................................................................221 Pressure ...........................................................................................................222 Specific Gravity ..............................................................................................222 Force, Mass, and Acceleration ........................................................................222 Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces ................................................................223 Stress and Strain .............................................................................................223 Principles of Mechanics ......................................................................................223 Statics ..............................................................................................................223 Welds ..............................................................................................................223 Dynamics ........................................................................................................224 Hydraulics and Pneumatics—Fluid Mechanics .............................................224 Soil Mechanics ...............................................................................................224 References ................................................................................................................231 Chapter 7 Air Pollution .............................................................................................................233 The 411 on Air ..........................................................................................................233 Definition of Key Terms ......................................................................................235 Definitions.......................................................................................................235 Components of Air: Characteristics and Properties ................................................237 Atmospheric Nitrogen .........................................................................................238 Nitrogen: Physical Properties .........................................................................238 Nitrogen: Uses ................................................................................................238 Nitrogen Oxides ..............................................................................................238 Atmospheric Oxygen ...........................................................................................240 Oxygen: Physical Properties ...........................................................................240 Oxygen: Uses ..................................................................................................240 Ozone: Just another Form of Oxygen .............................................................240 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide ..............................................................................241 Carbon Dioxide: Physical Properties ..............................................................241 Carbon Dioxide: Uses .....................................................................................242 Atmospheric Argon .............................................................................................242 Argon: Physical Properties .............................................................................242 Argon: Uses ....................................................................................................243 Atmospheric Neon ...............................................................................................243 Neon: Physical Properties ...............................................................................243 Neon: Uses ......................................................................................................243 Atmospheric Helium ...........................................................................................243 Helium: Physical Properties ...........................................................................243 Atmospheric Krypton ..........................................................................................243 Krypton: Physical Properties ..........................................................................244 Krypton: Uses .................................................................................................244