HandbookofParticleDetectionandImaging Claus Grupen andIrèneBuvat(Eds.) Handbook of Particle Detection and Imaging WithFiguresandTables 123 Editors ClausGrupen IrèneBuvat DepartmentofPhysics IMNC-UMR8165CNRS SiegenUniversity Paris7andParis11Universities Emmy-Noether-Campus OrsayCampus Walter-Flex-Str.3 Building440 57072Siegen 91406OrsayCedex Germany France LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2011934762 ISBN978-3-642-13270-4 DOI10.1007/978-3-642-13271-1 Thispublicationisalsoavailableas: ElectronicpublicationunderISBN978-3-642-13271-1 PrintandelectronicbundleunderISBN978-3-642-14621-3 SpringerHeidelbergDordrechtLondonNewYork ©Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2012 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.Allrightsarereserved,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned, specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductionon microfilm orinanyotherway,andstorageindatabanks.Duplication ofthispublication orparts thereofis permittedonlyundertheprovisionsoftheGermanCopyrightLawofSeptember9,1965,initscurrentversion, andpermissionforusemustalwaysbeobtainedfromSpringer.Violationsareliabletoprosecutionunderthe GermanCopyrightLaw. Theuseofgeneral descriptive names,registered names,trademarks, etc. inthis publication does notimply, evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevantprotectivelawsand regulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Editor:ClausAscheron,Heidelberg,Germany DevelopmentEditor:SylviaBlago,Heidelberg,Germany Production/CoverDesign:SPIPublishing,Pondicherry,India Printedonacid-freepaper Acknowledgments ClausGrupenwouldliketothankProfessorDouglasMcGregor,Ph.D.,KansasStateUniversity, forhiscontributionstothehandbookintheinitialphaseofpreliminaryconceptionandplan- ning.TheprofessionalhelpofDr.TiloStroh,SiegenUniversity,inquestionsofproofreading, layoutandLaTeXhandlingisacknowledged. IrèneBuvatwouldliketothankallherstudentsfornever-endingstimulatingdiscussions thatpartlymotivatedtheinvolvementinco-editingthisbook.Sheisalsodeeplyandvariously indebtedtoDr.StephenBacharachandDr.RobertDiPaolawhotaughthersomuch. Preface Sophisticatedinstrumentationsandimagingdeviceshavebecomepowerfultoolsinthemodern worldoftechnology.Advancesinelectronics,fastdataprocessing,imagereconstruction,and patternrecognition,justtonameafew,haveenabledthedevelopmentofveryelaborateinves- tigationtechniquesthatarenowusedinmanydifferentfieldsofscienceandmanydomainsof applications.Alargenumberoftechnologicaladvanceswereoriginally developedinparticle physics,butthenspreadtoastrophysics,medicine,biology,materialsscience,art,archaeology, andmanyotherapplicationdomains. Thefieldofimaginghasknownincredibleadvancesintherecentdecades.Withatomicforce microscopesorscanningforcemicroscopes,very-high-resolutionimagescannowbeobtained. Resolutions onthe orderof fractions of a nanometer,more than times betterthan the opticaldiffractionlimithavebeenreached.Withthescanningtunnelingmicroscope,atomscan evenbedraggedalongandpositionedtobuildatomic-scaleartificialstructures.Increasingly higherresolutionsrequiremoreandmorestoragespace.ATriumphcalculatorfromthefifties inthelastcenturyusingferritecoreshadastoragecapacityofbits!TheLargeHadronCollider (LHC)atCERNwillproduceroughlypetabytes(milliongigabytes)ofdataannually.The discoveryofagiantmagnetoresistancebytheNobellaureatesPeterGrünbergandAlbert Fertenabledabreakthroughingigabyteharddiskdrives,andsothistechniqueallowsmassive numbercrunchingandcancopewithhugedatafiles. Also the image quality and image reconstruction accuracy have substantially increased. Foradecentphotooneneedsmorethanmillionphotons intheoptical range.Inobser- vationalastronomythesensitivityofinstrumentshasimprovedoveraperiodofyears– fromGalileo’stelescopetotheHubbleSpace Telescope–byafactorofmillions. Forthe discovery of an X-ray source in our galaxy, approximately photons are sufficient. Using theimagingatmosphericCherenkovtechnique,thediscoveryofagamma-raysourcecanbe claimedifmorethanaboutphotons–withlittlebackground–comefromthesamepointin thesky.Theseadvancesalsocomeaboutbecausehigh-resolutionpixeldetectorsareavailable. Inthesthebestcharge-sensitiveamplifiersusedforthereadoutofsemiconductorcounters hadanoiselevelequivalenttothatofelectrons.Nowadaysonecanunambiguouslycount singleelectrons,becausethenoiselevelhasdecreasedbyafactorof. Imagingalsoplays a majorrole in medical diagnosis.The old X-raytechnique hasbeen improvedandhasbeenmademoresensitivebyusingimageintensifiers.Antiparticles,discov- eredincosmicraysinthethirtiesofthelastcenturyarenowroutinelyusedinpositronemission tomography(PET)forcancerdiagnosisandtherapymonitoring.Alsoγraysareusedingamma cameras,scintigraphy,singlephotonemissioncomputedtomography(SPECT),andPET,with allsortsofdiagnosticindications,includingsuspicionofheartorbraindisease.Theoperation ofComptontelescopes,knownfromastroparticlephysicsexperiments,hasnowfounditsway intomedicaldiagnosisasComptoncameras,althoughimagereconstruction from Compton camerasremainsamajorchallenge. Beyonddiagnosticimaging,nucleartechniqueshavealsoenteredthedomainofmedical therapy.Thestrongionizationofchargedparticlesattheendoftheirrange(Braggpeak)has initiatednewmethodsincancertreatment(particletherapy)withsubstantialadvantagesover viii Preface therapy with cobalt- γ rays. Apart from γ rays and charged particles, also neutrons have importantapplicationsintherapy. On the detector side, a lot of progress has also been achieved. Early detectors, like the Wilsoncloudchamber,providedlotsofdetailsaboutchargedparticlesandtheirinteractions. Onedrawbackwasapoortimeresolutionorrepetitiontime.Ifyoucanonlyrecordoneevent perminute,suchadetectorisnotsuitedforacceleratorexperiments.IntheLHC,protonscol- lideeverynanoseconds,resultinginapossibleeventrateofmillionpersecond.Modern detectorscannotonlymeasurethespatialcoordinates,theenergyandmomentumofaparti- cle,buttheycanalsodeterminetheidentityoftheparticle.Particleidentificationisessentialfor theunambiguouscharacterizationofinteractionsornewparticleproduction.Thesetechniques arealsoimportantinmanyotherfieldsmeasuringelectromagneticradiationasγrays,Xrays, terahertzradiation,ultraviolett(UV),orinfrared(IR)photonsuptomicrowavephotons. Thishandbookcentersondetectiontechniquesinthefieldofparticlephysics,medicalimag- ing,andrelatedsubjects.Itisstructuredintofourparts.Thefirsttwopartsdealwithbasicideas about particle detectors,like interactions of radiation and particles with matterand specific typesofdetectors.Inthethird partapplications ofthesedevicesinhighenergyphysics and relatedfieldsare presented.Finally, the lastpart concerns the ever-growing field of medical imagingusingsimilardetectiontechniques.Thedifferentchaptersofthebookarewrittenby well-knownexpertsintheirfield.Clearinstructions onthedetectiontechniquesandprinci- plesintermsofrelevantoperationparametersforscientistsandgraduatestudentsaregiven. Detailedtables,diagrams,andfigureswillmakethisaveryusefulhandbookfortheapplication ofthesetechniquesinmanydifferentfieldslikephysics,medicine,biology,otherareasofnatural science,andapplicationsinmetrologyandtechnology.Also,itisourhopethatsuchabroadpre- sentationofparticledetectorsandradiation-basedimagingcanbeasourceofcross-fertilization betweendifferentfieldsofapplications. IrèneBuvatandClausGrupen OrsayandSiegen June About the Editors ClausGrupen ProfessorofPhysics DepartmentofPhysics FacultyofNaturalScienceandEngineering SiegenUniversity Emmy-Noether-Campus Walter-Flex-Str.3 57072Siegen Germany ClausGrupenstudiedphysicsandmathematicsatKielUniversity,Germany.Hereceivedhis Ph.D.inphysicswithathesison‘ElectromagneticInteractionsofCosmicRayMuons’(). In/hebecameVisitingFellowoftheRoyalSocietyofEngland,UniversityofDurham, cooperatingwithSirArnoldWolfendaleoncosmicrayphysics.InhechangedtoSiegen University and obtained his habilitation on his cosmic ray work (). As member of the PLUTOexperimentheworkedonelectron–positroninteractionsatthestorageringsDORIS andPETRAatDESYinHamburg(–).HebecamefullprofessoratSiegenUniversity in.InhereceivedtheSpecialHighEnergyandParticlePhysicsPrizeoftheEuropean Physical Society for the Discoveryof the Gluon in,jointly with membersof the JADE, MarkJ,PLUTO,andTASSOCollaborations.Inandhespentsabbaticalsasvisiting professorattheUniversityofTokyoandasscientificassociateatCERN(,,and). FromonheismemberoftheALEPHexperiment(electron–positroninteractionsatthe + − worldlargeste e colliderLEP)atCERN. Professor Grupen is author of a number of textbooks on physics (Particle Detectors ; second edition (with Boris Shwartz) ; Astroparticle Physics ; Introduction to RadiationProtection). ProfessorGrupenhasorganizedanumberofsymposia,isrefereeforphysicsjournals,and heismemberofanumberofinstitutions. He served as Dean of the physics department at Siegen University /; –; and –, and he is still active in research after his retirement in  working on the KASCADE-Grande and LOPES experiments at the Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe on astroparticlephysics. x AbouttheEditors IrèneBuvat IMNC-UMR8165CNRS Paris7andParis11Universities OrsayCampus Building440 91406OrsayCedex France Irène Buvat has received her Ph.D. degree in particle and nuclear physics from Paris Sud University,France,in.Duringherthesis,sheorientedhercareertowardsapplicationsof NuclearPhysicsforMedicalImaging.Shespentoneyearasapost-docatUniversityCollege London,UK,workingonSinglePhotonEmissionComputedTomography(SPECT)andtwo years atthe National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA, specializing in Positron Emission Tomography(PET).In,sheenteredtheFrenchCNRS(CentreNationaldelaRecherche Scientifique)andiscurrentlytheheadofa“QuantificationinMolecularImaging”teamofthe “ImagingandModellinginNeurobiologyandCancerology”CNRSlabinOrsay,France.Her researchactivities focus ondeveloping correction andtomographic reconstruction methods inPETandSPECTtoimprovetheaccuracyandreducethevariabilityofmeasurementsmade fromPETandSPECTimages.HermethodologicalapproachisbasedontheuseofMonteCarlo simulationstoinvestigatealldetailsoftheforwardimagingprocesssoastoidentifykeyaspects tobeconsideredwhendevelopingquantificationmethods.Sheiscurrentlythespokesperson oftheworldwideOpenGATEcollaborationdevelopingtheGATEMonteCarlosimulationtool dedicatedtoMonteCarlosimulationsinemissionandtransmissiontomographyandradiother- apy.IrèneBuvatisalsolargelyinvolvedintomakingquantificationinSPECTandPETaclinical reality.Shecontributedtoanumberofstudiesdemonstratingtheclinicalvaluesofsophisticated quantificationtoimproveimageinterpretation,andobtainedalargenumberofresearchcon- tractswiththemajorcompaniesinthefield.Shehasauthoredorco-authoredmorethan peer-reviewedarticles. IrèneBuvatteachesmedicalphysicsinseveralFrenchUniversities(Nantes,Lyon,ParisSud). Sheactsasanassociateeditorof“IEEETransactionsonMedicalImaging”andof“IEEETransac- tionsonNuclearScience”andservesontheEditorialBoardofthe“JournalofNuclearMedicine” andontheInternationalAdvisoryBoardof“PhysicsinMedicineandBiology.”