Mark R. Sneed Taming the Beast Studies of the Bible and Its Reception Edited by Christine Helmer, Steven McKenzie, Thomas Römer, Jens Schröter, Barry Dov Walfish, and Eric Ziolkowski Volume 12 Mark R. Sneed Taming the Beast A Reception History of Behemoth and Leviathan ISBN 978-3-11-057931-4 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-058159-1 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-058033-4 ISSN 2195-450X Library of Congress Control Number: 2021941382 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Logo: Martin Zech Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com Contents Acknowledgments XI List of Illustrations XIII  Introduction 1  The Need fora Reception Historical Approach 4 . Methodology: Reception History 5 . Older and Newer Forms of Reception History 7 . Methodological Limitations 11 . Summary 12  Monster Theory and the Beasts 13 . Chaoskampf and Monsters 18 . Theodicy and Monsters 26 . The Sublime, Monsters, and Theodicy 29 . Biblical Scholars’ Employment of the Sublime in Interpretation 30 . Summary 31  Leviathan’s Ancestry.com 32 . The Ugaritic Evidence 32 .. Summary of the Baal Cycle and Its Significance 33 . Iconographic Evidence regarding Ancient Near Eastern Dragons 41 . Summary 44  The Israelite Reconfiguration of the Canaanite Combat Myth: Leviathan 46 . Etymology of Leviathan and Tanninim 48 . Echoes of the larger Backstory of YHWH’s Defeat of Leviathan 51 . Summary 55  Intimations of a Monster in the Bible 57 . Six Citations of Leviathan in the Hebrew Bible 57 .. Ps 74:12–19 57 VI Contents .. Isa 27:1 61 .. Ps 104:25–26 67 .. Job 3:8 68 .. Job 40:25–41:26 69 . Conclusions 82  Leviathan Gets a Side-Kick: Behemoth 84 . Theodicy Function of the Two Beasts in the Divine Speeches 87 . Conclusion 88  The Beasts Become God’s Enemy Again and the Epitome of Evil 90 . Summary 92 . Qumran 92 . New Testament 93 .. Revelation 93 . Patristic and Early Medieval Interpretation of the Beasts as Satanic 97 .. Origen (185–254 CE) 98 .. John Chrysostom (347–407) 99 .. Gregory the Great (550–604) 100 .. Isho’dad of Merv (9 century) 102 . Conclusion 103  The Nodal Nuances of Negativity within Christianity 104 . Sexy Beasts: Sexual Interpretations of Behemoth’s Body 104 .. Origen (185–254 CE) 104 .. Jerome (347–420) 104 .. St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) 106 . Fishing for Leviathan: Leviathan asa Leading Figure in the Atonement 107 .. Origen (185–254 CE) 107 .. Cyril of Jerusalem (315–387) 107 .. Gregory of Nyssa (335–395) 108 .. Gregory the Great (550–604) 108 .. Philip the Presbyter (5 century) 109 .. Honorius of Autun (12 century) 110 .. St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) 111 .. Martin Luther (1483–1546) 112 Contents VII .. Karl Barth (1886–1968) 114 .. Summary 116 . The Beasts as the Other: Heretics and Pagans 116 .. Origen (185–254 CE) 116 .. Jerome (347–420) 117 .. Hugh Eteriano (1115–80) 117 .. Martin Luther (1483–1546) 118 .. St. George and the Dragon 120 . The Faithful Trample on Leviathan 121 . Conclusions 122  Is It Roast Beast or a Meal for the Beast? Culinary Interpretations 124 . Leviathan as Hellmouth 124 .. Karl Barth (1886–1968) 128 . Summary 128 . Jews Eat the Monsters instead of the Monsters Eating Them 130 .. Roast Beast: God Prepares Meat for the Eschatological Feast 130 . Leviathan among the Pilgrims 145 . Conclusion 145  A Whale of a Tale: Jonah’s Dag as Leviathan and Its Reception 146 . Jonah and Leviathan among the Jews 150 . Herman Melville’s Leviathan in Moby Dick 152 .. Melville, the Man, and his Book 155 .. Melville, Moby Dick, and the Sublime 156 .. Melville versus the Rationalism of Contemporary Biblical Critics 158 .. Summary 161 . Conclusion 161  The Beasts as (De‐)Stabilizers: The Axis Mundi Tradition 163 . Apocalypse of Abraham 163 . Ladder of Jacob 164 . Gnostic Christians, Muslims, and the Axis Mundi 166 VIII Contents . Leviathan and the Axis Mundi More Broadly: Mystic Traditions 167 .. The Zohar and Leviathan 167 . Summary 171 . Thomas Hobbes and the Resurrection of Leviathan as the Axis Mundi 171 .. Hobbes’s Historical Context 171 .. Hobbes’s Political Thesis in Leviathan 174 .. Evolution from Chaos Dragon to Hegemonic Monster of Order 175 .. Why a Symbol from the Book of Job? 177 .. Summary 179 .. Hobbes in Cinematic Form: A Russian Leviathan 179 . Conclusion 180 . Contrast Between Christian Versus Jewish Interpretation 181  From Fable to Fauna: The Monsters Become Natural Animals 183 . Theodore of Mopsuestia (350–428) 183 . Sa’adia ben Joseph (882–942) 184 . Maimonides (1135 or 1138–1204) 186 .. Summary 188 . Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) 188 . The Beasts during the Reformation 189 .. Jean Calvin (1509–64) 190 . The Joban Beasts in the Enlightenment: Demythologization Completed 194 .. Samuel Bochart (1599–1667) 194 .. Summary 202 .. P. T. Barnum (1810–91) 203 . The Beasts Become Extinct Natural Animals: Creation Science 204 .. The Beasts as Dinosaurs 206 .. The Bombardier Beetle 207 .. Biblical Archaeology Review and Creationism 210 .. A Biblical Scholar’s Reaction to Creation Science 211 .. Summary 212 . Biblical Scholars Tame the Beasts: The Historical Critical Method 213 .. Modern Biblical Scholars Taking a Naturalistic Approach 215 .. Mythological Approach 218 Contents IX .. “Have Your Cake and Eat it Too” Approach 223 .. Summary 230 . Conclusion 235  Return of the Repressed: “Romantic” Perspectives 236 . William Blake’s “Romantic” Response to the Beasts’ Demythologization 236 .. Blake and the Bible 238 .. Behemoth and Leviathan in the Job Paintings/Engravings 238 .. “The Tyger” 244 .. Summary 246 . John Milton (1608–74): Huge Animals with Mythical Resonance 246 . Robert Alter (1935–) 248 . Incarnations of Leviathan (and Behemoth) in Films 249 . Conclusion 251  Taming the Beast: Conclusions 252 Works Cited 256 Subject Index 278 Ancient Citations Index 284